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European exploration and colonisation of Australia began in the early 17th century, when Dutch explorer Willem Janszoon made the first recorded European landing in 1606. This was followed by Portuguese and Spanish exploration, but it was the Dutch who mapped much of Australia's northern and western coasts, naming the continent New Holland. In 1770, British explorer Captain James Cook sailed along Australia's east coast, mapping it and claiming the land for Great Britain, naming it "New South Wales."
The British Government's decision to establish a penal colony in Australia led to the First Fleet's arrival in 1788 at Sydney Cove, marking the beginning of European settlement. The early settlers, many of whom were convicts, faced numerous challenges in adapting to the new environment. Over time, the penal colony evolved into a civil society, with significant reforms including the creation of a Legislative Council and Supreme Court by the 1820s.
The 19th century saw rapid colonial expansion as settlements were established across the Australian continent, with new colonies such as Van Diemen's Land (Tasmania) in 1803 and Western Australia in 1829. As settlement spread, so too did conflict with the Indigenous population, who suffered greatly from disease, violence, and displacement. These frontier conflicts, which many historians argue amounted to acts of genocide, led to the loss of land and cultural upheaval for Aboriginal Australians.
By the mid-19th century, the colonies were largely self-governing, although they remained under British rule. The influx of migrants, driven by the discovery of gold and the promise of opportunity, transformed the colonies, sparking both prosperity and social unrest. The Eureka Rebellion of 1854, for example, was a response to the oppressive gold licence fees.
By the end of the century, the movement for Australian federation grew, and in 1901, the Commonwealth of Australia was born. Despite their shared British heritage, the six colonies united under a single constitution, marking the formal birth of Australia as a self-governing nation. This period also saw Australia's increased involvement in global conflicts, with the country fighting alongside the Allies in both World Wars, solidifying its identity as an independent nation.